Jazz experimentalists Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Jazz experimentalists - Essay Example On a track called ‘Blue Eyes’, Bradford and his accompanying band expertly meld individual instrumental artistry with warm and lush melodies to create an inviting, yet wholly unique jazz experience. The track features Douglas Bradford on guitar, Chris Ward on tenor saxophone, Peter Schwebs on bass, and Luc Decker on drums, and starts with Bradford’s skilled virtuosity on the guitar. Shortly, afterward Chris Ward joins in on tenor and offers a nice counterpoint to Bradford’s syncopation. While Bradford displays his considerable skill on the guitar, his sound never loses touch with the audience and is always underlined by a soothing melodic element. Perhaps was greatest about the band’s sound is the seamless transitions they exhibit. Bradford’s guitar playing gives way to Ward’s saxophone and rather than sounding forced, the quick pause shows the band makes excellent use of the in-between times and silences. Ward’s saxophone is part John Coltrane part Miles Davis. As he weaves in and out of skilled improvisations, and contemplative ballads, it’s almost as if he is serenading the listener` at midnight. The band’s sound is sure to never fall into a lull however, and just as the listener begins to fall into a trance, they are quickly punctured by an off-setting pitch, or sharp burst of melody. While the percussion is never overly obtrusive, neither does it merely keep pace. The nature of the band’s sound is such that stylistic flourishes occur, in however a subtle fashion. This is perhaps the most accurate way to categorize their drums. At times they rely on stark minimalism to seduce the listener into the sinuous sonic journey, and at other times they are capable of stylistic flourishes that leave the listener calling for a long extended drum solo. In all they stand as virtuously proud as any other component of the band’s sound. While the individual features of Bradford’s sound are too be recognized for their excellence, it’s

Study skils (multimedia technology) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Study skils (multimedia technology) - Essay Example Television is a highly accessible media for public consumption, reaching millions of viewers in the UK alone. Producers of television programmes, and in particularly of commercial advertisements, must be highly aware of the potential for the distortion of their messages in order to most efficaciously counter the distortive effects. They do so by making use of visual and auditory queues in many cases, which guide viewers toward the intended understanding. These queues may be derived by research into current social trends, psychological research, or other evolved responses. Advertisers frequently make use of more subtle queues, with the intent of changing public opinion in favour of their particular products or services. Several techniques are utilised by the producers of television programming and advertisements. Musical queues are ubiquitous, as it has been well established that particular musical queues will inspire particular feelings or thoughts in the individual listening. In con junction with imagery, musical choices can have a profound impact on the way that individuals decode the information being presented. Imagery is carefully constructed by the producers of television as well. ... Advertisers are particularly skilled in the use of subtle imagery, designed to engage the emotions of an audience while bypassing their higher cognitive functions. We know, for example, that we do not actually need many items presented in advertisements to survive or thrive, but shrewd advertisers inspire us, on an emotional level, to accept the notion that our happiness or well-being are somehow linked to the product or service presented. Our higher thought processes are largely circumvented by the imagery and musical queues presented to us, so that we end up feeling that we have some personal investment in procurement of the services or products being sold. Producers of television programmes similarly inject particular messaging into their programming, dependant upon the desired effect in the viewer. The portrayal of minority individuals in accordance with stereotypes in order to generate either sympathy or antipathy toward members of that group. While this is established within th e context of the particular programme, these feelings frequently translate to real life, especially when the same images and ideas are portrayed frequently and in different

Transmission cabling and techniques Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Transmission cabling and techniques - Assignment Example The advent of televisions and transmission of not only calls but also video or visual signals called for the introduction of broadband transmission medium in the form of broadband copper coaxial cables in the 1930s. This was followed by the development of coaxial cables into tandem that contained microwave radio relay systems in the 1970s. These were broadband systems in which television and conversation signals travelled through radio with the help of a number of towers. Microwave relay had the advantage of lower construction and maintenance costs as compared to coaxial cables (Migliavacca 143). Fiber optic cables that used light to transmit signals came before more advanced techniques of LAN (local area networks) as forms of transmission media. It was after the introduction of fiber optic cables in the 1980s that more advanced techniques like OFDM, which is the acronym of orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing and MIMO which is multiple-input and multiple-output, were introduced as a modes of encoding digital data (Pejanovic-Djurisic, Enis, and Ramjee 94). The OFDM technology is a mode of encoding digital data on a number of carrier frequencies while MIMO is the application of several antennas on both ends of the transmission and receiving to enhance communication performance. Wireless technology is expected to advance further with predictions such as the use of light bulbs that have the capacity to transmit data through illumination. Additionally, wireless technology is expected to advance further to the implantation of devices with the capacity to receive wireless tr ansmissions on humans. This is expected to notify people of particular events

An economic analysis of the causes of serfdomslavery Essay

An economic analysis of the causes of serfdomslavery - Essay Example Serfdom on the other hand, is also a social economic system whose conditions of bondage are bound but not limited to the fields of landowners. This is in return for protection and the right to work in their leased fields. Basing on these definitions, serfs are also slaves, only that serfs are entitled to property rights, therefore, free, in a way, to do what he thinks is fit for his land. In an analysis paper on the causes of slavery or serfdom in relation to agrarian capitalism, the author distinguishes the two systems by the following context. This is with the assumption that: "A slave can be forced to supply unskilled labor when supervised by a farm operator but he cannot be forced to surrender his non traded skills. This captures the idea that you cannot make a slave a residual claimant without also giving them a substantial degree of independent control over how they allocate labor between their tenancy and labor services to the landlord. A slave owes labor service in return for nothing other than a subsistence wage, whereas serfs were typically peasant farmers who maintained access to land in exchange for payment to a landlord which may or not have included significant labor-service obligation." (Jonathan Conning, p.10) It was during the medieval times, with the rise of feudalism in Europe, that the era of serfdom and slavery became rampant. In the feudal system, the society was divided into three social classes, namely the religious, the nobles and the laborers. The serfs and the slaves were under the third class, whose tasks mainly consist of household duties. The nature of slavery and serfdom prior to the colonization of America was described in an online article at the following context: "Most slaves in Africa, in the Islamic world, and in the New World prior to European colonization worked as farmers or household servants, or served as concubines or eunuchs. They were symbols of prestige, luxury, and power rather than a source of labor." (Digital History online textbook) The Rise of Capitalism This social economic system developed further in Medieval Europe. Though it declined in Western Europe, in the later middle ages, it spread out on Eastern Europe. With the Europeans desire for colonization, it expanded to Africa and shortly thereafter, to Americas. An online article also pointed out that "It was only in the New World that slavery provided labor force for a high-pressure profit-making capitalist system of plantation agriculture producing cotton, sugar, coffee, and cocoa for distant markets." (Mintz, S.) This is when the nature of serfdom and slavery transformed and evolved. During this process of exploration and colonization, emerged the "triangular trade" between the colonies. The triangular trade is derived from the three ports or regions that participated in the trade namely West Africa, West Indies and Europe. The trade evolved where commodities that are not needed in one region are shipped (export) to other regions that needs and receives it (import). In this trading system, the products of slave labor like sugar, molasses, tobacco and rice were brought to England where an exchange of goods took place. The goods were also shipped to Africa in

Capital Asset Pricing Model Essay Example for Free

Capital Asset Pricing Model Essay The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is an important model in finance theory. CAPM is a theory or model use to calculate the risk and expected return rate of an investment portfolio (normally refer to stocks or shares). All stocks have 2 risks: Systematic Risk (also called Market Risk which affect every stocks) and Unsystematic Risk (also called Specific or Unique Risk that only affects individual stocks). To diversify unsystematic risk, we selected and combined different stocks, which are negatively correlated with one another into one portfolio. In this way risk are eliminated greatly. See diagram below. CAPM Equation The general formula used for Capital Asset Pricing Model is: re = rf + [ ß (rm rf) ] where the components are as follows: re = Expected return rate of the investment portfolio rf = Risk free rate of return ß = Beta (correlation between the shares and the market) rm = Expected market return which also means: rm rf = Market risk (systematic risk) ß (rm rf) = Risk premium *Beta is overall risk value for investing in the stock market. The higher the beta, the more the risk. CAPM Example Assume there is two Investment portfolio (stocks) or project A B. With the information given below, we can use CAPM to help us decide which to invest on. risk free rate beta expected market return A 3% 2.5 10% B 3% 1.2 10% From the beta value above, we know A is a more risky portfolio. A is 2.5 times more risky than the overall market and B is 1.5 times less risky. †¢ Expected return produce by A re = rf + [ ß (rm rf) ] re = 3 + [ 2.5 (10 3) ] = 20.5 % †¢ Expected return produce by B re = rf + [ ß (rm rf) ] = 3 + [ 1.2 (10 3) ] = 11.4 % Using CAPM formula, we calculated A produce a 20.5% expected return rate. It is higher than the overall market expected return, which is 10%. Whereas for B, the expected return rate are only 11.2% compare to market return of 10%. Base on result, A is definitely a better but if you don’t feel conformable with A’s risk or think it might not able to produce the expected return rate, then you would probably can choose investing in B. Criticisms of CAPM Although CAPM seems to be one of the most widely used methods to determine the expected return of a investment portfolio, It still have its limitation. Many had criticized on its unrealistic assumptions. †¢ Required a well-diversified portfolio Firstly CAPM works really well with a well-diversified portfolio as it accounted for systematic risk (market risk) but as seen on the graph on page 1, systematic risk is still undiversified. Therefore unsystematic risk is ignore in CAPM calculation. †¢ Beta as it main calculation components As Beta value are computed base on past one year figures so in this case CAPM assume that the future wont change. Also beta may not really reflect the actual performance of different stocks. This was question by professors Eugene Fama and Kenneth French where they looked at share returns on the New York Stock Exchange, the American Stock Exchange and Nasdaq between 1963 and 1990, they found that differences in betas over that lengthy period did not explain the performance of different stocks. The linear relationship between beta and individual stock returns also breaks down over shorter periods of time. These findings seem to suggest that CAPM may be wrong. †¢ Risk free rate of return CAPM assumes there is a risk free rate where investors can borrow or lend at this rate but it is not true in the real world. †¢ Perfect capital market exists There is no transaction cost for trading in the market and profit is non-taxable. †¢ All investor are the same CAPM assume all investors have the same expectations on the risk and expected return.

Effects of cyber ego on morality Essay Example for Free

Effects of cyber ego on morality Essay When one is in a virtual environment for long, one soon becomes convinced that the cyber space world is the real world which is the turning point in his life after which everything turns against him. This virtual world that is mistaken to be the real world is a parallel world that one is in. the presence of one in the virtual world that is non – existent leads one to fall in a state is consciousness which is very different from the one in the real world. After this, one starts to think differently, act in a way one has never acted before and a lot of other things that soon do not make sense to him self either, but this is a fact that although one knows there is something wrong, one can not help it. (Johnson 2003) It becomes a part of one’s life and is difficult to get out of it. After being in a parallel universe that is all made up, there is different stimuli that then change and guides our behaviors. It is a journey which a lot of people find interesting. On their journey to no where, when they are entering the virtual world, they take along the best ethics that their religion could teach them, wonderful morals that they learnt from their parents since they were kids and the cultural ethics that they grew in since they were kids; all that is with them when they are entering the virtual world, but it is ironic that when they come out of it for something they are completely different. (Pritchard 2000) One is a completely different individual which some how loses all its values that were taught to him or her during their life span and all the ethics and morals that they learned while they were in school and all that goes deep down the drain. How the virtual world affects our culture, values, morals, ethics and perception of which we are and of what the world is, changes; is what we will be discussing through out this report. (Ess 2006) When one enters a virtual environment, it is a battle of what is real and what one has left behind. This is where one’s cyber ego comes into picture. Cyber ego is primarily what a person thinks of one self in a virtual environment. There is no doubt that there is a lot of artificial intelligence involved in the so called virtual environment that one enters in, but there is a problem of cyber ego that makes many individuals question themselves before entering an environment as such. The moral values are lost. This is not only true but has been experienced by many people who have made a mistake of entering a virtual environment. Talking to different people, people that one is not aware of as ever even existing before they started talking in the cyber world, it changes one’s attitude and the stimuli that one guided the person’s perception and state of emotion; this all mutate and make the individual a different person, for all wrong reasons. (Schultz 2005) There are a lot of things that have an impact on our morals and ethics. For example, the more time one spends on it, the more aggressive one gets. This aggressiveness can be because one can no more differentiate between the real world that one lives in and the virtual world that one is in most of the time of the day. This aggressiveness adds to the change in one’s attitude and hence personality. (Ess 2006) The changes in one’s attitude and personality all depends on how much one might be engrossed in cyber ego. How much one would want oneself to be a part of the virtual environment and adopt cyber ego is the question that will also answer how much a person changes and becomes a truly different person that one was not. It is the difference of decisions that one makes that leads one towards developing a cyber ego being unhealthy to an extent that it would drive the life long morals and ethics out of the person and make one a totally different person. Having this said, it is of utter concern of as to how the changes take place. Some claim that the fact that hours and hours of the week are spent in front of the computer screens being in a world that is non existent. Having a personality that is not the personality the person has in the real world, and faking that personality to be the real one; if so is done for hours, every single day of the week for months or even years, yes there will be a drastic change in what one believes and what one perceives. (George 2003)

Raymond Williams And Post Colonial Studies Cultural Studies Essay

Raymond Williams And Post Colonial Studies Cultural Studies Essay Twentieth century literary critic Raymond Williams was one of the most reputable, yet contested scholars from the British New Left. Once dubbed our best man in the New Left by his contemporaries, Williamss reputation in a post colonial context is less secure.  [1]  Patrick Brantlinger said it best: Williams was thoroughly the representative man. He was the voice of the ordinary, the voice of the working-class, the voice of Wales, the voice of British socialism, the conscience of Britain and of Europe. He understood that his life mattered because it was ordinary, and representative.  [2]  However, the early 1980s signified the shift in political and economic relations between western and non-western countries through post-colonialism, including former British colonies.  [3]  Moreover, post-colonialism served as an avenue to recover alternative ways of knowing and understanding or simply those other voices as alternatives to dominant western constructs.  [4]  While Raym ond Williams provides British colonial commentary, primarily in his seminal work, The Country and the City, it was in the periphery of his grander cultural theory. Scholars within the Birmingham School and post colonial studies have debated the implications of this, including Williams himself. Consequently, this essay will outline the scholarly debate regarding Raymond Williamss alleged ambivalence towards British colonialism and race within his conception of culture. This will allow for an examination of Williamss work within the context of postcolonial studies, particularly the legacy of his cultural theory in a modern context. Raymond Williamss analysis in The Country and City certainly coincides with postcolonial theories emphasis on geography, whether in conversations around spaces, centers, peripheries or borders.  [5]  This analysis is especially significant because as argued by Anthony Alessandrini, postcolonial theory has benefited from the Marxist and Marxist-influenced analyses undertaken by figures involved in the post-Second World war movements against imperialism and for national liberation.  [6]  Alessandrini attributed the 1970s and 1980s political work and cultural analysis of writers like Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall and Paul Gilroy for influencing major figures in postcolonial studies such as Franz Fanon and Edwards Said.  [7]  Therefore, as Alessandrini continued, We would need to look more closely at the historical circumstances under which the field of postcolonial studies has arisen, and especially at the sorts of strategic decisions involved in the adoption or rejection of particular theoretical paradigms.  [8]  Paul Giles would certainly agree as he adds, It would be disingenuous to ignore the fact that postcolonial scholarship in its contemporary guise has as one of its enabling conditions of possibilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the increasing attention paid to issues of subalternity and hegemony by forms of cultural Marxism such as those of Antonio Gramsci and Raymond Williams.  [9]  Consequently, this paper is framed around this very approach in regards to the work of Raymond Williams. While few would question the merit or significance of Raymond Williams and his nuanced study of the nineteenth century British rural working class in both Culture and Society and the Long Revolution, there has been significant criticism of Williams due in part to his silence regarding British colonialism. This has proved to be disturbing for some, and certainly problematic for a number of Williamss contemporaries and successors even within the British New Left. Gauri Viswanathan provides an exceptional layout of the criticisms against Raymond Williams and the British New Left in general to conceptualize culture and imperialism. He outlines that within British cultural Marxist tradition since Williams, the conception of British nationalism has been used interchangeably with issues of race, colonialism, or imperialism.  [10]  This is quite evident in Raymond Williamss Keywords (1976), in which the definition of race is not a separate entry of its own, but is distinctively tied to i deas of nationalism. Williams writes: Nationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦originally with a primary sense of a racial group rather than a politically organized grouping. Since there is obvious overlap between these senses, it is not easy to date the emergence of the predominant modern sense of a political formation. The persistent overlap between racial grouping and political formation has been important, since claims to be a nation, and to have national rights, often envisaged the formation of a nation in the political sense, even against the will of an existing political nation which included and claimed the loyalty of this [racial] grouping. It could be and is still often said, by opponents of nationalism, that the basis of the groups claim is racial. (Race, of uncertain origin, had been used in the sense of a common stock from C16 [sixteenth century]. Racial is a C19 [nineteenth-century] formation. In most C19 uses racial was positive and favourable, but discriminating and arbitrary theories of race were becoming more explicit in t he same period, generalizing national distinctions in supposedly radical scientific differences. In practice, given the extent of conquest and domination, nationalist movements have been as often based on an existing but subordinate political grouping as upon a group distinguished by a specific language or by a supposed racial community.  [11]   Gauri Viswanathan attributes Raymond Williamss understanding of British nationalism as less of a theoretical oversight or blindness than an internal restraint with complex methodological and historical origins.  [12]  Citing Raymond Williamss conception of base and superstructure, Viswanathan dissects Williamss methodology and level of comfort with Marxist framework. While Viswanathan highlights the dynamic nature of Williamss work as seemingly accommodating a broadened analysis of culture to include colonial relations, he ultimately concedes that Williams continually resisted that kind of refinement of his work.  [13]  Moreover, Viswanathan continued that this base and superstructure framework restricted him [Williams] to solely economic determinist outcomes and pointed to the inefficacy of Williamss cultural materialism.  [14]  Hence Viswanathan concluded that Williamss model was inherently unable to accommodate British imperialism as a function of metropolitan culture due to the internal restraints of his troubled self-conscious with Marxian  [15]  frameworks. Forest Pyle presented a similar commentary in his essay, Raymond Williams and the Inhuman Limits of Culture. Pyle argues that since language is a human instrument it is consequently inhuman for Williams to consider culture as the mapping of a particular historical configuration and of social, economic, and political life.  [16]  Moreover, Williamss cultural theory is beyond repair and cannot simply be corrected  [17]  due to the intertwined nature of culture and community within Williamss work. Therefore Pyle concludes that Raymond Williamss sense of culture cannot account for the historical and structural forms of colonialism and its aftermath. Pyle then goes a set further than Viswanathan in asserting that this points to not merely a personal limitation but a structural limitation that is explicitly exhibited by Williamss unapologetic understanding of empire.  [18]   Both Pyle and Viswanathan provide interesting critiques in light of Raymond Williamss 1973 essay, Base and Superstructure. Within this essay Williams stated that he had no use or static or highly determinedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ model(s) in which the rules of society are highlighted to the exclusion of the processional and historical.  [19]  Yet as both Pyle and Viswanathan conclude, Raymond Williamss analysis does not apply this cultural materialism model within an imperial or colonial context. Viswanathan indentified Raymond Williams as having an internal restraint due to his understanding of British culture and national identity.  [20]  Therefore Williamss conception of national culture remained hermetically sealed from the continually changing political imperatives of empire.  [21]  For example in The Country and the City, Raymond Williams classifies imperialism as the last mode of the city and countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦within the larger context of colonial expansion in which ev ery idea and every image was consciously and unconsciously affected.  [22]  Ultimately, however, British influence extended outward rather than that the periphery had a functional role in determining internal developments.  [23]  Consequently, Williams could only conclude that Britain achieved dominance through the power of a fully formed cultural and institutional system which was transplanted and internalized within British colonies.  [24]   Unsurprisingly, Raymond Williamss cohorts within the Birmingham have attributed this kind of colonial analysis to racism or an egregious form of Eurocentrism on Williamss part. This is especially the case for those involved in black cultural studies, namely Stuart Hall and Paul Gilroy. Stuart Hall openly critiqued the limitations of the Birmingham cultural theory in dealing with the other during his tenure as program director in the late 1960s. Hall found that the issues race and cultural relations as advocated by his predecessors were particularly oppressive to minority groups, therefore highlighting a departure of the School itself from Raymond Williams.  [25]  In Cultural Studies and Its Theoretical Legacies, Hall discusses the question of race in cultural studies as a major break in the Birmingham School. He emphasizes: Actually getting cultural studies to put on its own agenda the critical questions of race, the politics of race, the resistance to racism, the critical questions of cultural politics, was itself a profound theoreticalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.and sometimes bitterly contested internal struggle against a resounding but unconscious silence. A struggle which continued in what has since come to be known only in the rewritten historyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.of the Centre for Cultural Studies.  [26]   Paul Gilroy, who studied with Stuart Hall at the Birmingham School in England, focused on postcolonial modes of deracination within transatlantic culture.  [27]  As Paul Giles states, Paul Gilroy took issue with what he perceived as traditional racism and ethnocentrism of English cultural studies,  [28]  citing in particular the tendencies of E. P. Thompson and Raymond Williams to systematically omit blacks from their analysis on British cultural identity.  [29]  Therefore, Gilroy viewed America as a counterpoint to British cultural analysis, and a means of disturbing any narrowly ethnic definition of racial authenticity or the purity of cultures on either side of the Atlantic.  [30]  Gilroy juxtaposed black culture in Britain with American black protest movements, in order to discredit conceptions of race, people or nation as advocated by Raymond Williams. In fact, Gilroy presents one of the most extreme critiques of Raymond Williams, charging him with proposing a ne w racism in his analysis of culture.  [31]   New Left scholar Benita Perry highlights that the new racism advocated by Raymond Williams was especially problematic for Paul Gilroy, who argued that New Left efforts in the 1960s to reclaim patriotism and nationalism resulted in ethnic absolutism.  [32]  She continues that the concept of culture itself became a site of struggles over the meaning of race, nation, and ethnicity for scholars interested in minority studies such as Gilroy.  [33]  The main issue for Gilroy was that Raymond Williamss conception of culture, with its emphasis on long experience, deflected the nation away from race, setting the course for British Cultural Marxists in general to write irresponsibly and quite ambivalently about race.  [34]  Additionally, this excluded blacks from the significant entities due to Williamss silence on racism, which for Gilroy has its own historical relationship with ideologies of Britishness and national identity.  [35]  This is very similar to the argument presen ted by Gauri Viswanathan earlier on the influence of Raymond Williams on British imperial and national scholarship.  [36]   Beyond overt notions Eurocentrism, Williamss critics vehemently opposed his understanding of the long [British] experience deriving from rooted settlement, which excluded colonized groups and immigrants from the significant entity.  [37]  Paul Gilroy notes that the most egregious silence in Williamss work is his refusal to examine the concept of racism which has its own historic relationship with ideologies of Englishness, Britishness and national belonging.  [38]  He adds, There can be little doubt that blacks are familiar with the legacy of British bloody mindedness in which he takes great pride. From where they stand it is easier to see that its present day cornerstones are racism and nationalism, its foundations slavery and imperialism.  [39]  Therefore, Gilroy concludes that cultures are not isolated from each other as Raymond Williams seemly implied in The Country and the City, but are linked to the persistent crisscrossing of national boundaries.  [40]   Additionally, Paul Gilroy discussed the implications of Raymond Williamss work for peoples of color residing in or immigrating to England. In direct response to Williamss position on lived experience and rooted settlement, Gilroy pointedly asked: How long is long enough to become a genuine Brit in the context of lived and formed identities?  [41]  Gilroy argues, that Williamss favored the exclusion of immigrating peoples of color and contributed to a new racism grounded in a discourse of nation, focused on the enemy within and without race.  [42]  This new racism is rooted on cultural rather than biological determination, proving them undeserving of citizenship and creating authentic and inauthentic types of national belonging.  [43]  This was a position that his Birmingham School program director, Stuart Hall agreed with as well. Raymond Williamss requirements for British citizenship had major implications for those colonial subjects of the Commonwealth outside of Britain, such as Jamaican scholar Stuart Hall. These groups lacked the settled kind of identity and would certainly not qualify under this sort of citizenship as advocated by Raymond Williams as well.  [44]  Raymond Williamss commentary in Towards 2000 favored lived and formed identities, preferably those of a settled kind, for practical formation of social identity has to be lived.  [45]  Williams continues: Real social identities are formed by working and living together, with some real place and common interest to identify with.  [46]  Unsurprisingly, Stuart Hall retorts: I am the sugar at the bottom of the English cup of tea. I am the sweet tooth, the sugar plantations that rotted generations of English childrens teeth. There are thousands of others beside me that are, you know, the cup of tea itself. Because they dont grow it in Lan cashire, you know. Not a single tea plantation exists within the United Kingdom? What could Williams say to this-this outside history that is inside the history of the English?  [47]   Donald Nonini adds to this discussion in his analysis of Stuart Halls critique of Raymond Williams. He writes: The issue here for Stuart Hall, is the requirements of real and lived social identities, and the manner of exclusion of recent immigrants, who although residence of England, have only been there for a few generations. Clearly they do not share the long historical association with the land and forcible integration upon it as Williams required for real citizenship.  [48]  This had major implications on Stuart Halls work within the Birmingham School because he could not ignore the racialized aspects of Raymond Williamss cultural theory. In his essay, Culture, Community, and Nation, Hall equates Williamss cultural belongingness through actual, lived relationships of place, culture and community, amongst politically and culturally subordinate peoples as a replacement for biological determinism and coded language for race and color.  [49]  Therefore, Stuart Hall agrees wit h Paul Gilroy that there is overt ethnic absolutism within Raymond Williams work. Moreover, Hall concludes that post-colonial diasporas of the late-modern experience will never be unified culturally because they are products of cultures of hybridity.  [50]  Hall equates this hybridity to a diasporic consciousness, which meant that non- retain strong links with the traditions and places of their origins while adapting to their present circumstances, so that they can produce themselves anew and differently.  [51]   In defense of Raymond Williams, Andrew Milner argued that both Stuart Hall and Paul Gilroy misinterpreted Williamss position on race, citing Towards 2000 as an example.  [52]  Milner writes that Williams was not only vocal about race, but advocated the kind of grassroots social movements that would raise awareness for the heterogeneous strands of English society.  [53]  In fact, Williams describes anti-globalization social movements as resources of hope.  [54]  Additionally, Milner relates Williams analysis of social movements to his understanding of class. He adds that for Williams, neo- imperialist issues led into the central systems of the industrial-capitalist mode of production and its system of classes.  [55]  He supports his position quoting Williams discussion of rooted settlements in Towards 2000: Rooted settlements were alienated superficialities of legal definitions of citizenship with the more substantial reality of deeply grounded and active social iden tities.'  [56]  This interpretation, according to Milner, was problematic for future Birmingham School scholars, particularly Paul Gilroy, who concluded that Williamss authentic and inauthentic types of national belonging followed the same racist rhetoric of British conservatives.  [57]  Milner, however, maintains that this was a distortion of Williamss original argument. He ultimately concludes that future scholars should reexamine Williamss position on race.  [58]   Similar to Milner, Donald Nonini and Christopher Prendergast presents Towards 2000 as the best evidence of Williams conception of racism and visible others in a post colonial context. Nonini cites Williamss observation that the most recent immigrations of more visibly different peoplesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦have misrepresented and obscured pasts.  [59]  Nonini continues that Raymond Williams did account for the differences within British culture and the contested nature of citizenship. For example, Williams wrote that when newly arriving immigrants interacted with true Englishmanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦angry confusions and prejudices were evident because of the repression of rural culture and people within Great Britain.  [60]  Nonini interprets this as a sign of Williams internalized colonist sentiment.  [61]  Therefore, Raymond Williams understood racism as the result of the hostility between the formerly integrated peoples and the immigrating more visibly different peoples due to colon ial ideology.  [62]  Moreover, Andrew Milner continues that Raymond Williams did not exclude blacks from a significant social identity with their white neighbors, as Paul Gilroy suggests highlighting Williamss analysis of rural mining communities in Towards 2000.  [63]  Additionally, Stuart Halls assertion that Raymond Williams not only questioned, but ruled out the possibility that relationships between blacks and whites in many inner-city communities can be actual and sustained is even more unfounded when analyzing Williamss work in Towards 2000.  [64]   Christopher Prendergast clarifies that Raymond Williams did not consider this as actual racism, but a profound misunderstanding due to purely social and cultural tensions between the English working class and who they perceived as outsiders.  [65]  While Williams seems to side with the ordinary, working-class man, Prendergast does specify that Williams did counter nativist claims in his conclusion that foreigners and blacks were just as British as we are.  [66]  Therefore, Prendergast maintains that Williams understood the limitations of a merely legal definition of what it is to be British. He adds that Williams felt that attempts to resolve issues around social identities were often colluded with the alienated superficialities of the nation which were often limited to the functional terms of the modern ruling class.  [67]  Ultimately, both Prendergast and Milner conclude that Raymond Williams was not oblivious to racial relations, citing Williams again: It is by working and living together as free as may be from external ideological definitions, whether divisive or universalist, that real social identities are formed.  [68]   While Milner and Prendergast offer an apologetic interpretation of Raymond Williams and colonial relations, Paul Giles and Forest Pyle emphasize Williams conception of culture as the liability in his analysis. In his essay, Virtual Americas: The Internationalization of American Studies and the Ideology of Exchange, Paul Giles cites Raymond Williamss idealized conception of community as an empowering and socially cohesive forceas problematic.  [69]  Williamss stubborn insistence in holistic communities and rooted settlements creates significant challenges when dealing with imperial relationships. Seemingly, Raymond Williamss cultural analysis accommodates a broadened conceptualization of culture that is inclusive of colonizer-colonized relations, yet this never materializes. Instead, Williamss understanding of the cultural experience becomes overtly exclusive of colonial others, minorities, and immigrants due to his naturalized and geographically localized notion of English nation al culture.  [70]  As outlined previously with Forest Pyle, Williamss appropriation of culture as inhuman and fictional due to the pervasive and elusive nature of the term itself in relation to colonial analysis.  [71]   Post colonial scholar R. Radhakrishnan provides a critique of Raymond Williamss cultural theory as a means of deconstructing Eurocentrism in a post colonial context. While Radhakrishnan acknowledges the insight provided in The Country and the City, he argues that Williamss continual self-reflexivity posits him in a contradictory position when it relates to colonialism and culture. Therefore his commentary becomes both oppositional-marginal and dominant-central and ultimately coincides with a demonstrably metropolitan voice.  [72]  As a result, those within the margins or periphery of dominant British culture are too easily and prematurely adjusted and accommodated within what Williams considered as a connecting process towards a common history.'  [73]  Radhakrishnan maintains that what differentiates post colonial scholars such as Edward Said or Paratha Chatterjee from Raymond Williams is their awareness and articulation of subaltern marginality that often negates Williamss n otion of a successfully transplanted method of cultural commonality.  [74]  In that sense British nationalism or culture can be enacted in the postcolonial context to the detriment of indigenous, peripheral cultures because it fails to speak for them. Therefore, Radhakrishnan concludes that Williamss cultural analysis is incapable of dealing with the nuances of either a colonial or post colonial world. Nevertheless, numerous scholars have worked to